The History of Egypt is as long, rich, and varied as that of few countries in the world. And fortunately for non-Egyptians, enjoying its legacy has been possible in all eras. In fact, Egypt is often considered the first tourist destination in human history, with Herodotus as the first tourist of all time: in the 5th century BC, this Greek philosopher wrote that “in no other place are there so many wonders nor can so many works of indescribable greatness be seen.”
On this page, we present a summary of Egyptian history to pique your interest and, if you wish, close the circle drawn by Herodotus: you can be the next tourist to admire the “wonders” and “greatness” of that ancient civilization and those who came after. Our agency will help you plan your trip in depth so you don’t miss a detail!
What is today the northeastern edge of the Sahara Desert was, several tens of thousands of years ago, a lush savanna full of vegetation and lakes. This is reflected in the prehistoric engravings of the Gilf Kebir mountain plateau, near the border with Libya. There, in the 1930s, schematic drawings were discovered with an age of about 10,000 years. They were made by Bushmen peoples who, in addition to showing animals typical of that habitat (gazelles, ostriches, giraffes, etc.), also depicted human figures swimming (Cave of Swimmers), an activity unthinkable here today. The nearest coast is more than 600 km away!
But this lush savanna dried up to become the largest hot desert in the world. And the Bushmen of the area, who were engaged in hunting and gathering food, had to retreat towards the Nile or towards the different oases of this vast territory. There they were able to find a favorable environment for agriculture, thus starring in the Neolithic period of the history of Egypt.
Therefore, this great river is at the very origin of Egyptian civilization, whose members also took advantage of its channel to practice fishing. In addition, these peoples had great skills in making quality fabrics and ceramics. And they were organized from the beginning in nomes, with two defined geographical entities: Upper and Lower Egypt, a distinction that was maintained throughout all periods of the history of Egypt and that is still used to a large extent today.
Until approximately 3100 BC, the benign conditions of the land (the Nile floods occurred periodically and the Delta was formed by seven branches of this river) and the advanced degree of development of Egyptian society led to the emergence of one of the most fascinating civilizations in the History of Humanity, which still captivates the entire world today with its achievements… and its mysteries: Ancient Egypt. In addition, the hostile and vast deserts located on each side of the Nile represented a natural wall impassable by external enemies, which was its best defensive system. These are the so-called Predynastic and Protodynastic periods, the germ of what came next.
But the turning point for the history of Egypt was carried out by King Narmer, of whom little information is available, except for the very important Narmer Palette preserved in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo. This engraved slate plaque shows a different scene on each side: one presents the king with the crown of Lower Egypt, and the other with that of Upper Egypt. Therefore, the interpretation leaves no room for doubt: he was the architect of the first unification of the country, with the two crowns falling on his head. .
After the starting signal from King Narmer, who is associated with the mythical Menes, the history of Ancient Egypt truly begins, which experts have agreed to present as follows: three periods of splendor, interspersed with periods of crisis and decline. And counting from Narmer, a list of about thirty dynasties has been compiled, based on different archaeological findings.
This is the basic outline of this period of Egyptian history, with its reference or approximate dates. You can also consult the chronology of dynasties and eras here:
This first great period of the history of Egypt Ancient goes from the unification of Narmer in approximately 3100 BC to the end of the reign of Pepy II, around 2181 BC. It spans from dynasty I to dynasty VI. Therefore, this period includes the Archaic Period, which culminated the unification of Narmer and encompasses the first two dynasties. The capital ends up being established in Memphis, a strategic point where Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt converged, ideal for the control of both territories.
One of the most outstanding elements of this period was the construction of large funerary pyramids. That has led many to refer to this period of the history of Egypt as the ‘era of the Pyramids’. The first was the stepped pyramid of Saqqara, the funerary enclosure of King Zoser, which was followed by more than twenty, the most famous and perfect being those of Giza, dedicated to the pharaohs Cheops, Khafre, and Menkaure.
The construction of the pyramids was not a decision taken at random: it indicates the absolute divinization of the pharaoh and suggests a power strongly centralized in him, capable of bringing together around his figure thousands of workers for the construction of these funerary enclosures, as well as other architectural projects tremendously advanced for the time.
But from the last years of the reign of Pepy II (from 2190 BC) the decline of the Old Kingdom is consummated, as the regional governors of the nomes (nomarchs) expand their power and influence, leading to a period of decentralization and shifting power to cities such as Heracleopolis and Thebes. This period of the history of Egypt spans from dynasty VII to dynasty XI (2055 BC), an era that, despite everything, was one of literary flourishing.
The Middle Kingdom is a relatively short period in the history of Egypt, as it goes ‘only’ from 2050 BC to 1750 BC, approximately. That is, from the end of dynasty XII to dynasty XIV. In this period, Mentuhotep II is the great architect of a new reunification, this time with Thebes as the hegemonic city and consolidating the center of power in Upper Egypt.
It is a time of economic prosperity, exemplified in complex and ambitious projects such as the irrigation system of the Fayyum oasis. Also, there is a certain change of beliefs: the cult of the god Amun is now the most important, displacing others more popular previously, such as Montu, Osiris, and Horus.
The end of this period of the history of Egypt is caused by the Hyksos of the Near East and the Libyans, first in migratory waves (around 1800 BC) and later through the military invasion of practically all Egyptian territory, thanks to the use of more sophisticated battle techniques. The Hyksos rulers, who ruled from Avaris, in the Nile Delta, formed dynasties XV and XVI, but Egyptian leaders from Thebes (dynasty XVII, which only ruled in this city) promulgated a kind of war of liberation, which they won around 1550 BC, ending the foreign domination of the Hyksos.
With dynasty XVIII, from approximately 1550 BC, begins the last and great period of the history of Egypt Ancient: the New Kingdom. It lasts until dynasty XX and is the golden age of the pharaohs, who in this stage act as true warrior commanders. Thebes is again the capital, as well as the religious and funerary center, except for the parenthesis that meant the transfer of the capital to Akhetaton (Amarna) under the reign of Amenophis IV (also known as Amenhotep IV or Akhenaten) and with the support of the famous Queen Nefertiti.
This military vigor led to a great external expansion, reaching the Euphrates to the east and dominating Upper Nubia to the south. But it also guaranteed a solid defense of the territory against Hittite pressure (Battle of Qadesh), with interspersed periods of relative peace. It is in this era that some of the most famous pharaohs of the history of Ancient Egypt, such as Ramses II, Nefertari, Thutmose III, or Tutankhamun, are framed.
The most adored god is now Amun-Ra (with the exception of the period of Amenophis IV, who promoted the cult of the solar deity Aten), to whom some of the most spectacular temples of all Ancient Egypt are dedicated, such as the one in Karnak, in Thebes (today next to Luxor) or those of Abu Simbel in Lower Nubia. But the wealth of this period can also be seen in the spectacular tombs and royal treasures, such as those offered by the Valley of the Kings, also in Thebes.
The end of this period of the history of Egypt (around 1070 BC), had as culprits the foreign enemies who harassed and undermined the border lands of Egypt (Libyan Bedouins to the west, the pirates of the ‘sea peoples’ in the Mediterranean, and the Assyrians and Hittites to the northeast). Egypt was a country too attractive for the nascent foreign powers, who set their sights on the Delta and the Nile Valley in the following centuries. But it is also explained by internal reasons, such as royal corruption and social instability.
And the result is the Third Intermediate Period, an era with different centers of power: some dynasties in Lower Egypt (of Libyan origin in some cases), who govern from Tanis, and others in Upper Egypt, governing from Thebes. These are dynasties XXI, XXII, XXIII, and XXIV (from 1069 BC to 747 BC, approximately), which overlap each other. Dynasty XXV, of Cushite origin (Kush, Nubia), is also usually framed in the Third Intermediate Period, who conquered the country from beyond the Nile cataracts but were forced to retreat by the great power of the moment: the Assyrians.
The Third Intermediate Period was not followed by another of great splendor, as in the previous stages of the history of Egypt. On the contrary, the country remained directly or indirectly at the mercy of foreign rulers, in what was called the Late Period.
The period begins, however, with the exception that was dynasty XXVI, the last of a purely local nature in the history of Egypt, which temporarily regained power for the Egyptians and tried to unify the territory with Sais as the capital (hence the name of the Saite dynasty).
But the usual thing was that the administration fell to vassals controlled by these foreign governors, giving greater importance to the Delta for its agricultural capacity. Upper Egypt remained in the background to Upper Egypt, often motivating social revolts and a constant climate of instability, with some local victory that guaranteed certain autonomy. And on the religious level, some Egyptian divinities were assimilated to other foreign deities, thus denoting a certain assimilation or cultural subordination.
In the year 332 BC, one of the most transcendental personalities for the ancient world and also for the history of Egypt bursts onto the Egyptian scene: Alexander the Great. At that time, the country was subjected by the Persian Empire, which suffered important defeats in its confrontations with the armies of this Hellenic military man. Therefore, upon his arrival in Egypt, he was received as a savior and proclaimed Pharaoh, a position he combined with others such as King of Macedonia, Hegemon of Greece, King of Asia, and Great King of Media and Persia.
Alexander the Great remained a short time on Egyptian soil, but it was enough to consult the oracle of Amun in Siwa and found Alexandria on the shores of the Mediterranean. He died in Babylon in 323 BC, but the country kept his legacy alive through Ptolemy of Lagos, general and childhood friend, who founded the Ptolemaic (or Lagid) dynasty, starring in a period of the history of Egypt that lasted for more than three centuries.
His successors turned Alexandria into the main city, placing Egypt in the orbit of the Mediterranean world, although they also knew how to develop a policy of continuity with the forms of Ancient Egypt: they adopted its clothing, its artistic styles, its government structures and its religious traditions. In addition, they undertook a great plan for the rehabilitation of old temples and for the construction of new ones. In fact, some of the best-preserved temples in the country are from that time, such as those of Dendera, Edfu or Kom Ombo, which are part of our circuits along the Nile.
But internal intrigues weakened the Ptolemaic dynasty, which had its final epilogue with Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator. This character, who has generated streams of ink and countless hours of cinema, can also be considered the link between this period of the history of Egypt and the next: the Roman.
When Ptolemy XII named his children Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII as co-heirs (mid-1st century BC), Egypt was already in the Roman orbit. And it was even more so when this queen, in her struggle for the throne against her brother, fell into the arms (literally) of Julius Caesar, later dictator of Rome, who helped her in this endeavor and gave her a son: Caesarion.
After the assassination of Julius Caesar in Rome, the astute Cleopatra did not hesitate to maintain a similar foreign and amorous policy to stay on the throne, marrying one of the new strongmen of Rome, Mark Antony, with whom she had two new children. But Octavian (or Octavianus, later Octavius Augustus or just Augustus) tried to monopolize for himself all the power that Julius Caesar once held, of whom he was a great-nephew.
And he succeeded, not without bloodshed: he had declared war on Mark Antony and Cleopatra, whom he defeated at the Battle of Actium (31 BC), in Greek territory. The couple later committed suicide, the latter after using her charms in vain with Octavian, who ordered Caesarion to be killed to definitively end Ptolemaic power.
Therefore, a new period in the history of Egypt was opened, under Roman rule, becoming a province of this Empire, which did not pay too much attention to it. They used the Delta and the Nile Valley as a granary and little else, leaving hardly any architectural footprint in the country. The positive thing, at least, was that it was a period of relative peace and economic stability.
On the other hand, the great legacy that the Romans left in the history of Egypt, already in the 4th century AD, was the legalization of Christianity, promoted by Emperor Constantine I the Great (year 313) and declared official later by another emperor, Theodosius (year 380), who also prohibited pagan cults, so all the religious temples of Ancient Egypt were closed.
It was the definitive endorsement for the Copts, a word that literally means “Christian Egyptians”, whose roots lie in the evangelization of the territory by Saint Mark, who died in Alexandria in 68 AD, a city of which he was its first bishop.
Two key dates for the Roman Empire are also key for the history of Egypt. The first, the year 395, when after the death of Emperor Theodosius the empire is divided in two: the Western one with its capital in Rome and the Eastern one with its capital in Constantinople, also called Byzantium (today Istanbul). And the second, the year 476, when the Western Empire definitively falls, devastated by internal crisis and barbarian invasions.
In this context, Egypt is definitively under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire, that is, the Byzantine Empire, heir to the Roman one although increasingly different from its structures and traditions. In the case of Egypt, the culture of Ancient Egypt is also being forgotten, including the language, which is gradually evolving until it becomes the Coptic language, used in Christian liturgy.
In these two and a half centuries of the history of Egypt, a certain peace and stability is maintained, despite external threats and Christian theological disputes: monophysitism considered that in Christ there was only one nature (the divine) and dyophysitism defended its duality (human and divine, although united in the same being). This gave rise to a key division, as it continues to this day: the former ended up founding the Coptic Church (or Coptic Orthodox Church) and the latter, the Orthodox Church of Alexandria. For the foundation of the Coptic Catholic Church, today a minority, it was necessary to wait until the 18th century…
But one of the most notable aspects of this Coptic period in the history of Egypt, at least for those who visit the country today, is the emergence of Christian monasticism. That is, the adoption of a solitary and ascetic life by characters who later became very important saints for all of Christianity, and who gave rise to two great monasteries: that of Saint Anthony the Abbot and that of Saint Paul in the Arabian desert. It is also worth mentioning the monastery of Saint Catherine in Sinai , with the relics of the body of Catherine of Alexandria, although this martyr never lived in this place. All these places are today the destination of important pilgrimages, which Egipto Exclusivo can organize for you.
In that climate of religious discord, a new conquering power erupted that, in the end, has been the definitive one for the history of Egypt: the Arabs, who in 639 (year 17 since the Hegira) introduced Islam at the hands of Úmar ibn al-Jattab (Ómar, Muhammad’s father-in-law and second orthodox caliph). And they did so in a climate of religious tolerance, allowing Christian and Jewish religious practices, in exchange for special taxes.
The country soon adopted the Sunni current and came under the rule of the Umayyad caliphate of Damascus. The currency was changed to adopt the dinar (or dirham), the Arabic language progressively spread to most of society and a military camp named El Fustat was created, in front of a Roman fortress on the Nile, the germ of the future city of Cairo.
The Umayyad rule was followed by the Abbasid from 750 (the 128th since the Hegira), whose leaders were protectors of culture, commerce, and promoted greater religious tolerance. They maintained control of Egypt for just over two centuries, and their domains came to extend from what is now Algeria in the west to present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east.
But at the end of the 10th century, the Fatimid caliphate, from the Maghreb, meant a break with its predecessors: they conquered the country and starred in a new period in the history of Egypt. They definitively found Cairo, a location with a revealing name (it means The Victorious, in Arabic), in the old camp that was already permanent, at the confluence of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Of Shiite current, they maintained the policy of religious tolerance, even allowing Christians, Jews and Sunnis to reach positions of responsibility in the Administration, if they were worth it. Caliph Al-Hakim built the great mosque that bears his name, and the city of Cairo was filled with squares, palaces and other ambitious constructions. At its peak (early 11th century), this caliphate came to dominate from the Maghreb in the west to Syria in the east. Cairo was its capital and had already surpassed Baghdad, the center of power of the Abbasid caliphate.
At the end of the 12th century, the last Fatimid caliph dies and with it began another important stage in the history of Egypt. The power fell de facto on Saladin (Al-Nasir Salah ad-Din), a soldier who came from Iraq to impose the lost order in the last years of the Fatimid caliphate. He returned Egypt to the Abbasid caliphate, restored the Sunni current, modernized the local administration, renewed the army, reduced taxes, expanded borders and undertook a construction program whose best example is the citadel of Cairo. Here he served as Sultan of Egypt and his fame and respect (and even fear) reached all corners of the known world, including Europe.
Upon his death, the country continued to be led by the warrior caste, in this case of Mamluks, who were originally slaves (their name means “the one who has a master”), who could achieve their freedom with their military services, prospering in society. And they reached the top, further expanding the territorial limits of Egypt and subjecting their neighbors. Their domains reached Turkey , to the north, which guaranteed Egypt a privileged position as a place of intermediation in the international spice trade.
This led to one of the periods of greatest prosperity in the history of Egypt, from which Cairo benefited: palaces and mosques were built in which no detail was spared, often made of marbles and colored stones. They also built welfare buildings, such as hospitals, and educational centers, such as Koranic schools. But there was also a dark side: it was a time of internal struggles and extreme cruelty, especially when there were successions involved.
The Ottoman Empire took advantage of this, taking Cairo in 1516, turning the country into a province relegated to the background. The reason for this must be found in two transcendental events for universal history, which also had consequences for the history of Egypt. The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus and the discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco de Gama. The impact of both events caused Egypt to cease to be relevant as a mediator in trade between East and West, so the country withdrew into itself for several centuries.
At the end of the 18th century, Egypt was still in its lethargy, with a recent restoration of the Mamluks in power but without weight in the international political scene. Until Napoleon set his sights on it, in his eagerness to become a kind of modern Alexander the Great. His army starred in a campaign in this country and in Syria , with important battles of different signs: in 1798 he defeated the Mamluks in the Battle of the Pyramids but lost against the British in the Battle of the Nile.
His adventure lasted very little, if compared with other episodes in the history of Egypt: barely 3 years. And it can be considered a military failure for not achieving its objective of expanding through these lands , but it did bring him profit in terms of image: it showed the world, and in particular his British enemies, the ambition of the ’emperor of the French’.
But according to historians, the great legacy that that Napoleonic adventure left to the Western world was the resurgence of interest in Ancient Egypt, thanks to the descriptive texts of the scholars who accompanied the French army on this expedition. And that meant the birth of Egyptology, which still today continues to fuel many of the tourist trips that are organized to this country.
Another of the characters that promoted the increase of international interest in the history of Egypt and for its monuments was Sultan Mehmet Ali. He promoted trips to the country for scholars and members of the wealthy Western classes, and turned the vestiges of Ancient Egypt into a real tourist attraction. At the political level, he governed during practically the entire first half of the 19th century, even standing up to the Ottoman Empire , which recognized him in power.
His successors maintained this open policy towards foreigners, almost to the point of kneeling. The best example was the construction of the Suez Canal, which was a milestone for maritime trade by uniting the waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea . And it should also be for the history of modern Egypt, but its most immediate result was the bankruptcy of the Egyptian economy… for the luck of France and, above all, of Great Britain, a power that was increasing its power of influence until turning the country into a British protectorate.
With the outbreak of the First World War, Great Britain saw Egypt as a strategic place as a field of operations, although at the conclusion of this contest, the British agreed to grant independence to Egypt, which adopted the form of a kingdom with a constitutional monarchy.
The United Kingdom, on the other hand, maintained a strong influence in the country, and that served it for a similar purpose in the Second World War: it was a battlefield, especially in El Alamein, on the Mediterranean coast. In that contest, the British stopped the Nazi intentions of conquering the country, seizing the Suez Canal and approaching their goal of dominating oil wells in the Middle East. A victory that still arouses great interest and attracts numerous tourists to places like its enormous cemetery.
But the end of the Second World War did not open a period of peace in the history of Egypt. On the contrary: it led to armed conflicts with its new neighbor, the State of Israel. The first and most painful, the Arab-Israeli war that, at its conclusion, generated in the Egyptian people a feeling of humiliation for the defeat and of anger against their rulers. And this resulted in the abdication of the last Egyptian king (Faruk) and the rise of the charismatic Gamal Abder Nasser, who in the end was the first president of the Republic of Egypt, already freed from British influence.
As president, one of his most important measures was the nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956, which irritated the French and British, the main shareholders of the infrastructure, as well as the Israelis, who saw their interests in the area harmed. The decision triggered a war crisis that, at its conclusion, strengthened Nasser in power, as he achieved his main objective: to maintain the nationalization of the canal.
Nasser, however, could not prevent Israel from occupying the Sinai Peninsula years later as a result of the Six-Day War (1967), which were later returned to Egypt in 1982 (already with his successor Moḥamed Anwar al Sadat in power), as reflected in the Camp David Peace Accords between both countries, sponsored by the United States.
Nasser’s mandate included large projects, the most important being the construction of the Aswan Dam to control the floods of the Nile River, with the consequent creation of Lake Nasser, next to the border with Sudan. But his political work goes far beyond and is key not only in the recent history of Egypt, but also in that of its neighbors: the scope of this figure transcended borders, becoming the driving force behind pan-Arabism, an ideology that pursued the union of Arab peoples and states.
Since then, Egypt, to a greater or lesser extent, has tried to play a central role in the Arab world, as a necessary bridge between Africa, the Middle East and the West, thanks not only to its geographical location but also to its deep cultural tradition and its close relationship with all countries due to its important international tourism.
In more recent times, Egypt continues to move towards transparency and modernization of the economy and institutions, sometimes demanded thunderously by the people. The greatest example of this was the Tahrir Square protests in Cairo, which represented the most visible mobilization of the Arab Spring (2010-2012).